Summary

"The Revolt of the Masses" by José Ortega y Gasset, written in 1930, is a profound analysis of the social and political transformations of Europe in the early 20th century. Ortega y Gasset identifies the rise of the "mass-man" as the defining characteristic of the era, an individual characterized not by social class but by a psychological disposition: a sense of entitlement, lack of deference to authority, and intellectual mediocrity.

The book delves into the historical context that facilitated the ascent of the masses. Ortega y Gasset argues that the 19th century, with its liberal democracy, scientific advancements, and industrial revolution, created a world of unprecedented ease and opportunity. This environment, however, paradoxically fostered a sense of entitlement and intellectual complacency in the average individual. The mass-man, accustomed to readily available comforts and rights, fails to appreciate the complex underpinnings of civilization or acknowledge any inherent limitations.

Ortega y Gasset contrasts the mass-man with the "select man," who is defined by a commitment to excellence, a willingness to embrace challenges, and a recognition of his own limitations. The select man constantly strives for self-improvement and acknowledges the importance of higher authorities and standards. In contrast, the mass-man, content with his own mediocrity, rejects any form of intellectual or moral hierarchy, leading to a culture of conformity and the suppression of individuality.

The revolt of the masses manifests in various aspects of public life, including politics, intellectual discourse, and social behavior. Ortega y Gasset criticizes the rise of "hyperdemocracy," where the masses directly impose their desires without regard for law or reasoned debate. He also laments the decline of intellectual rigor, as the commonplace mind asserts its right to pronounce judgment on complex issues without any genuine understanding.

Furthermore, the book explores the implications of the masses' intervention in all spheres of society, arguing that their dominance leads to a decline in specialized activities and a general cultural leveling. He warns that this "vertical invasion of the barbarians" threatens the foundations of European civilization, potentially leading to a new Dark Age characterized by intellectual stagnation and social fragmentation.

However, Ortega y Gasset also acknowledges the potential benefits of the rise of the masses. He recognizes that the increased access to resources and opportunities has elevated the overall standard of living and expanded the possibilities for human existence. He suggests that the challenge lies in harnessing the energy of the masses while instilling in them a sense of responsibility, intellectual humility, and a commitment to higher values. Ultimately, Ortega y Gasset calls for a new aristocracy of the spirit to guide society and prevent the triumph of barbarism.

"The Revolt of the Masses" serves as a stark warning about the dangers of unchecked mass society and the importance of preserving intellectual and moral standards in an era of rapid social change. It remains a relevant and thought-provoking analysis of the challenges facing modern civilization.